Chapter 21

Preparing Instructions and Manuals

Shannon Claybaugh and Kevin Pagel

Introduction

We use instructions frequently, and they are on many things that we don't often even think about. Burnett describes them as, "an essential part of the process of creating products" (774). Instructions are an extremely important part of our every day lives, and there are many reasons why we should want accurate, easy to follow instructions. According to Burnett (775), some reasons are:

• Personnel safety and performance
• Process/product safety and performance
• Summary or overview of process/product features
• Orientation for new team members as well as sales and marketing personnel
• Central location for documenting process/product specifications and modifications.

Getting People's Attention

The three concerns you should have when creating instructions, according to Burnett, are:

1. Lack of audience understanding

It is important to consider the intended audience when creating instructions, so that you may create something that your audience will

understand. This will avoid many problems.

2. Adult learning

Researcher Malcom Knowles coined the six main characteristics of learning in adults that need to be addressed when

creating instructions for adult readers. These are:

• Self-concept
• Rationale
• Experience
• Readiness
• Orientation
• Motivation

3. Aliteracy

Aliteracy is a problem among adults in the United States. It refers to adults that know how to read, but choose not to. This happens

when adults choose to scan instead of read, look at pictures instead of reading the text, and using electronic information that enables

them to receive information without having to read.

Considering Task, Audience, and Genre

1. Tasks

The task the user is hoping to perform by using the instructions you provide, according to Burnett, will fall into one of these categories:

• Actions/behavior of personnel
• Assembly of objects or mechanisms
• Operation of equipment
• Implementation of a process

2. Audience

The instructions need to be formatted to fit the needs and experiences of the intended audience. Also, the document needs to be

consistent. Burnett defines the term user-friendly as implying "that writers take a personal interest in the users" (780). This chapter

suggests using second person when creating instructions. When considering audiences from multiple cultures, the document must be

translated into multiple languages and use graphics that anyone will understand. This section pertains to the project we are working on

right now, because it suggests having a native reader look over any translated instructions to make sure it is user friendly.

3. Genre

Delivery, context and format will influence your design decisions. You need to consider the situation the instructions will be used in

before deciding on the genre. Some examples Burnett provides are:

• Street signs
• Quick reference guides
• Electronic help systems
• Procedures for tasks
• Installation instructions
• Tutorials

Time, frequency, memorability, and distance also need to be considered when deciding on a genre. Some negative effects of choosing

wrong genre, according to Burnett, are:

• Negative effects on marketing
• Negative effects on training staff
• Negative effects on support and field staff

Content Elements

It is suggested in this section to check your instructions against this list to produce "accessible, comprehensible, and usable

instructions" (794).

Purpose with a title and goal statement or objective

• Title may imply or state purpose
• Title may be accompanied by a visual that illustrates final objective
• Title may be supplemented by separately stated objective

Necessary components: parts list, equipment list, materials list

• A parts list identifies parts by name, part number, and quantity.
• Materials and equipment lists specify what users require to complete tasks.

Accurate chronology, with time factors

• Instructions should be presented in chronological order. Steps are easiest to follow if they are enumerated and separated. Not only should the overall sequence of steps in instructions be chronological, but each individual sub step should also be in order.

Clear, direct wording and consistent terminology

• Instructions are useful only if users can read them. Select the simplest term that accurately conveys the information.

Accurate, relevant details

• The details for instructions should be accurate and verifiable, sufficient, relevant, understandable, and well organized.

Rationale

• Should instructions specify only the required action, or should the action be explained or justified? The amount of detail you include depends on both the task and the audience. Explanations are essential in situations in which personal injury, equipment damage or procedure malfunction might occur.

Stylistic and grammatical conventions

• The individual steps in instructions are written in parallel structure, with each statement using the same grammatical structure. Instructions use the imperative mood because individual steps are commands to the users, not statements about the process. Instructions that employ second person, referring to the user as you, are the most concise and effective. Sometimes the you is not stated, but the users, weather readers or listeners, understand that they are being directly addressed.

Visual Elements

Effective visuals are critical parts of instructions.

• Select appropriate visuals, especially for the key parts and processes.
• Balance visual and verbal content.
• Select accurate visuals that are easily understood.
• Juxtapose labeled visuals with relevant text.
• Design an appealing, usable format.

Appropriate Visuals

• parts, tooling, equipment
• sequence of steps
• positioning of the operator and/or equipment
• development or change of objector equipment
• screens and pull-down menus in software development

Visual and Verbal Balance

Some processes are more easily understood through a visual presentation than a verbal one.

• Entirely verbal: well organized chronological paragraphs including causal elements, clear topic sentences, and good chronological transitions.
• Verbal and visual: sequence of captioned photographs showing a choking victim being saved by a trained person, or something of that nature.
• Verbal and visual: sequence of clear, captioned sketches showing a choking victim being saved by a trained person.
• Entirely visual: sequence of clear sketches showing a choking victim being saved by a trained person, with arrows and inserted enlargements of critical positioning.

Accurate Visuals

Accuracy is critically important in any type of visuals in instructions. Visuals that cannot be easily understood are not much help to the user. Many problems can be eliminated if the writer and the artist consider visuals as an integral part of the direction, not just a decorative addition. Also both the writer and the artist have to pay close attention to see how accurate and appropriate the visuals are.

Primarily Visual Instructions

This idea challenges the designers and writers because pictures, signs, and symbols do not have universal meanings. Color coding is very important in primarily visual instructions, often replacing verbal emphasis and differentiating similar elements in a drawing.

Warnings and Cautions

Companies are responsible for protecting their employees and their customers with proper safety equipment and safety warnings. Signs indicate that something is hazardous, for example you see any sign with a skull and two cross bones that would indicate that this substance of equipment will harm you if not used as directed.

Liability

Although workplace professionals have a number of choices about how they present cautions, warnings, and dangers, they need to know that providing inadequate safety information is a liability issue.

Adequacy

When you prepare instructions, you need to be sure that they satisfy the legal requirements for adequacy. In general, if you ensure that your instructions and warnings are accurate, accessible, and appropriate, you will be on your way to meeting the legal requirements for adequacy.

Chapter 19

Chapter 19

Preparing Proposals

Andrew Hebert, Heidi Knott

Introduction

A proposal is defined as the act of putting forward or stating something for consideration. This chapter goes through the process of developing and submitting proposals.

Information that should be included in a proposal:

1. Situation- a definition of the problem or opportunity, including information that situates it in the organization
2. Plan- present a plan for resolving the problem or addressing the opportunity
3. Benefits- explain probable benefits that will result from adopting the plan
4. Approach- outline methods for implementing the plan, including schedules, costs, and management plans
5. Evaluation- Identify and evaluation strategy for determining whether the proposed plan works
6. Qualifications- establish your qualifications for submitting the proposal and implementing the plan

Characterizing Proposals

Proposals are a form of persuasive writing that try to convince an audience that a proposed plan responds to a problem. Proposals have three main purposes, they are…

· Solve a Problem

o Some examples of problems would be like designing and manufacturing a mechanism to modify something.

· Investigate a Subject

o Many projects need to be investigated before they begin construction, so it is good to have a investigative proposal.

· Sell a Product or Service

o This kind of proposal provides information to a customer to help them make the right decision.

There are few different types of proposals, one being a solicited proposal which is written in response to a request for proposal (RFP). For example, when an organization asks an outside source to help with a problem they issue a RFP, which shows all of the specifications needed. You may also refer the solicited proposal as a bid request because the best proposal will get the job. Many places offer RFPs to people outside of the place, if they accept a proposal the person who they accepted would receive a contract or grant. Places like…

§ Research and nonprofit foundations

§ Educational institutions

§ Government agencies

§ Private businesses

Using Persuasion in Proposals

For your proposal to be effective it needs to use successful persuasive techniques. The proposal also needs to address any problems that may arise and discuss them before they are brought up.

Proposals need to discuss:

• Concerns of the audience- establish that the problem or opportunity exists and then clearly show how your plan is going to address it
• Credibility of the speaker or writer- If the readers believe that you are reasonable, honorable, and display goodwill, you will have credibility
• Logic of the message- your case should be reasonable and it should explain and relate the audiences needs to your proposed plan

Your argument can be either inductive or deductive:

• Inductive- reasoning from the particular to the general
• Deductive- reasoning from the general to the specific

Considering Requests for Proposals (RFPs)

How do you write a RFP, that is the next topic of discussion. Many people don’t realize the amount of time and effort that are needed to create this. If a person writees it carelessly it is likely that it will receive inadequate proposals. Here are a few steps to create an effective RFP…

1. Identify the Problem or Opportunity
   1. Describe the problem that you are looking to have fixed and tell why it is so important.

2. Provide Background Information
   1. This info is very critical for the consultants and researchers of the project

3. Define the Desired Outcome
   1. Describe how you would like the outcome of the project. It is very important to think about what will happen, also you should draw on opinions and expertise of your colleagues.

4. Specify the Product or Service You Need
   1. You should clearly show the product or service you need and should consider that once you dig deeper into the situation that it is possible your idea will change.

5. Require Detailed Information about the Organization and Personnel
   1. Detailed information will be needed so a fair comparison can be made among the people that respond to the RFP.
   2. Here are some things you can consider…

1) Personnel

2) Available Equipment

3) Work History

6. Provide Process Information
   1. Provide essential details about the proposal process to see which vendors would be able to fulfill everything
   2. Here are some things to include…

1) Dates

2) Project details to be considered

3) Proposal submitted for Consideration

4) Criteria for evaluating the proposals.

7. Establish Criteria for Selection
   1. Now identify which vendor suits your needs the best.

Preparing Proposals

When preparing your proposal it is very important to know reasons why proposals may fail:

• Lack of new or original ideas
• Diffuse, superficial, or unfocused research plan
• Lack of knowledge or published relevant work
• Lack of experience in the essential methodology
• Uncertainty concerning the future direction
• Questionable reasoning in the experimental approach
• Absence of an acceptable scientific rationale
• Unrealistically large amount of work
• Insufficient experimental detail
• Uncritical approach

Steps in preparing a proposal:

1. Planning- it is important to be aware of deadlines, establish an achievable schedule, know the review and evaluation procedures, analyze the background knowledge,
2. Drafting- when drafting, go back to the RFP, follow the recommended structure or sequence of information
3. Budgeting- identify the projected expenses, in a list or an elaborate spreadsheet
4. Evaluating- do a document test, view it as the intended audience will see it
5. Revising- this gives you another chance to check that the relationship between the problem and the plan is clearly established

Organizing and Submiting Proposals

There is not one single format that has to be used to write a proposal, they can range from a simple memo to a 300 page document.

If a person is not required to put the proposal in a certain way the best way would be to put it in this sequence…

· Introduction

o This would simply describe the situation or the problem that you are trying to solve, this is very important because if you do a bad job, the proposal will have no context.

· Plan

o Tells the audience how the problem will be addressed

· Benefits

o Explain to the audience about how your plan would benefit them and why they should adopt your plan instead of others.

· Approach

o Explains how the plan will be implemented, also the budget of the plan, and also the time frame in which the project will be completed.

· Evaluation

o This identifies ways to determine the proposed plan accomplishes all of the objectives that were required.

· Qualifications

o This is also very important because this will describe all of your capabilities and the structure of the proposer’s organization.

o This will also include resumes of all of the key personnel that will implement the plan

All of these would definitely be included in a formal proposal, but if the proposal is informal many of the categories would be eliminated. The opposite would go for a formal one; some very formal ones would include much more information in each category.

Chapter 20- Preparing Reports
McCabe and Larson
Objects and Outcomes:
*Explore and manage important characteristics of reports you will read and write
*Understand and use different types of reports
*Select components of report formats that are useful to your intended readers
*Critique and recommend adjustments to reports that others write

Planning Reports:
5 key things to ask-
*Purpose- What is the purpose of the report?
* Formality- What is the appropriate tone or approach?
*Audience- Who is going to read this paper?
*Organization- How should this report be organized?
*Genre-What genres will be most suitable for topic?

Research Reports and Articles:
Research is about finding new knowledge about a subject rather than applying knowledge that you already know. Research can be found in multiple ways, Experiments, observations, analysis or records. RESEARCH SHOULD BE ACCESSIBLE, CLEAR, AND TRANSFERABLE.

Task Reports:
Recommended or Justification Report: makes suggestions and relays why one should pick that suggestion or other solutions for a particular situation.
Inspection or Examination Report: focuses on observable information, often followed by recommendations of what to do.
Information or Investigation Report: collects and evaluates information about an existing situation, but the writer need not always include a recommendation.

Periodic Activity Reports:
Some organizations have these kinds of reports to help them keep track of activities they have done. Some reports may be filed daily, weekly, monthly or quarterly. Reports are made up of 3 main points.
*Overview: Name projects
*Activities: Specify project activities that are completed, in process and planned.
*Recommendations: Name needed changes in scheduling, personnel and budget.

Progress Reports:
These reports are done on a regular basis. This report answers questions like:
How is the project going? What has been done so far? How much time, money, and effort has been put into the project or task? Where are we now and what do we have planned for the future?
Do any plans need to be altered and if so what one’s?

Progress reports follow a sequence of information:
Overview: Introduce the project or task.
Progress: Summarize the progress to date
Recommendation: Identify major recommended schedule changes
Evidence: Provide reasons for changes
Discussion: Discuss impart the changes will have on task

Meeting Minutes:
The record of the proceedings of any deliberative group is usually called the minutes, or sometimes the journal. Minutes provide a record of the discussion and decisions that occur at meetings. Unless the minutes are going to be published, they should mainly record what was done at the meeting not what was said at the meeting.

Trip and Conference Reports:
They force the traveler to review and assess the activities of the trip or conference and differentiate the major accomplishments from those less important. A two-tiered approach is given:
*Give an overview and then summarize the preferred recommendation or solution.
*Cite evidence or support for the recommendation or solution in descending order of importance, dealing with both positive and negative points

Front Matter of a Report:
The front matter in a report is all the sections that come before the body of the document. This includes but is not limited to: Letter of Transmittal, Cover, Title Page, Table of Contents, List of Tables and Figures, List of Appendixes, and Abstract or Executive Summary. Some ways to differentiate levels of a document is to use INDENTATION, TYPE SIZE AND TYPE STYLE.

Body of a Report:
The Body of a report basically consists of 2 parts. Part 1 talks about the problem, findings and recommendations. Part 2 talks about the background to the problem, the approach, method and materials, available options, results, discussions, recommendations, and conclusions. Since there is two parts to the body, it does need to have some kind of order to it, whether it is chronological order, spatial order, cause and effect, or compare and contrast.

End Matter of a Report:
This part comes after the body. Appendixes, cited sources or a glossary may be a part of the End Matter.

Design Elements:
When writing a formal report be attentive to several aspects of the design:
*Headings and subheadings
*Pagination
*Figures and Tables
*Accessibility, comprehensibility and usability

Penultimate drafts, next to final drafts, will have to be done and revised. When revising one has to look at the following:
*Identifying the content and context
* Anticipating the reader’s needs
*Establishing Connections
*Using effective design and visuals
*Making the Text accessible
*Reflect professional standards

chapetr 17

Chapter 17
Engaging in Oral Communication
Jered Hansmeyer/Deborah Gesimba

Objectives and Outcomes

• Communicate ideas and plans effectively in front of an audience.
  
• Focus on purposes for your presentation and determine information to include.
  
• Engage listeners by organizing information in various ways and by using notes or outlines to help you keep track of what your doing.
  
• Design appropriate visuals and handouts to accompany your presentation.
  
• Create a professional image based on appearance and demeanor, vocal characteristics, and the way you handle questions from the audience.
  
• Be a good, active listener.
  
• Evaluate presentations fairly and thoroughly.
  

Types of presentations

Informal Presentations
Informal presentations consist of listeners that are already familiar with your work. An example of an informal presentation would possible be a work meeting. In this case everybody most likely already knows an issue that exists. Another form of an informal presentation would be to bring a new topic to a group and have a discussion. A city meeting or school board would have this type of discussion. A new topic is brought up in the meeting, and several different groups express their opinion.

Formal Presentations
A formal presentation differs in one way. The group one is presenting to doesn’t know the presenter, and isn’t aware of his/her work. A seminar could be an example of a formal presentation. The group listening doesn’t know the presenter, and is there to fully understand the topic. A lengthy presentation is given as a formal style leaving time for questions and further discussion.


Class Presentations
Class presentations have several benefits: giving honest feedback, role playing, helpful criticism, and developing strengths. Role playing as an audience helps the presenter to fully adapt to their audience. Making a proper presentation for the audience makes or breaks your effectiveness.

Preparing a Professional Presentation

Audience
Basically the more you know or understand your audience the better presentation you will have. The four types of possible audiences are: Professional peers, Nonexpert professionals, International audience, and general audience.

Purposes of Presentations
Once the audience is understood, the purpose can be better used. The purposes of presentations are: Informative presentations, persuasive presentations, demonstrations, and training sessions. The two types of information you need for a presentation is the information you need for the actual presentation, and the information you need for the questions asked. Engaging your audience is also very critical. Adding entertainment to the presentation will draw in the audience’s attention.

Organizing/Note Cards
Organizing your presentation makes the greatest impact on the success of your presentation. Your slides need to be organized in a way that it flows and continues interest. Breaks in the presentation to alert the listener of changing ideas helps to keep the audience with you. Including the main points, facts, and details on note cards keeps your eyes on the audience not on a screen. Making the correct amount of eye contact is critical to keep the audience interested.
Preparing Materials for a Professional Presentation

Visuals
It has been said that visuals boost a group’s attention by ten percent. Incorporating pictures, animations, and videos truly helps audiences to fully understand and retain some of the information. For example, if your presentation includes a large amount of numbers a graph could be used to gain interest. You don’t want to bore your audience by including several hundred numbers; instead a graph could be used to sum up the data shortly.

Types of Visuals/Size/Color
Visuals can range from white boards to slides, but can include: flip charts, prepared posters, transparencies, videotapes, models, and demonstrations. Making the visuals easy to view makes for an enjoyable time. Nothing is worse than making your pictures or other visuals hard to see. As a rule of thumb in a dark room use dark backgrounds, and in a light background use a light background.

PowerPoint for oral presentation

Concept: If you are using a PowerPoint as part of your presentation, determine the role of using the PowerPoint. Think about your audience when planning a PowerPoint Presentation and if the purpose of your presentation is well defined.

Content: Accessibility, usability and comprehensibility should not be hindered when presenting your PowerPoint. Example of items that affects the above the factors of communication are too many bullets, complex data display, too much or too little information on the slide and so many more
Presentation: When presenting, do not read your slides since the audience can read for themselves.

Handouts: They are important assets of presentation. When you are planning to use handouts in your presentation, think how your handout should be packaged including cover a page. Second, think when you should distribute your handouts and lastly how much details you should include in the handouts.

Professional Appearance
Professional appearance is important when presenting your project. Your presentation can be powerful if your behavior does not distract your audience such as your nervousness. It improve on your appearance let your presentation to be videotaped, view the tape and note areas that you need to improve.

Vocal Characteristics: Volume, articulation and pronunciation of words, rate and pitch are very important when doing oral presentation.

Handling Questions: Always plan ahead to be asked question in between your presentation or at the end. If you do not prefer to be interrupted ask the audience to hold their questions until the end if the presentation.

Evaluating Presentations
To be a good evaluator to you need to be an active listener by staying attentive, following the speaker’s presentation and understanding the content. Strategies to promote active listening are; determine the purpose, identify the organization, distinguish critical elements, monitor your reactions and make connection

Chapter 18 Preparing Correspondence

By Alex Nauman and Ben Damm

Objectives and Outcomes:
Ø Understand that correspondence, an important kind of technical communication, does not exist in a vacuum, nor does it have rigid format prescriptions
Ø Compose correspondence using appropriate planning strategies, selecting appropriate content, and developing an appropriate organization so the document is legible, readable, and usable
Ø Present good news in direct (descending) order. Present bad news in indirect (ascending) order
Ø Positively influence readers’ perceptions of your professional competence by using direct language, adopting a you-attitude rather than an I- or we-attitude, focusing on readers rather than yourself, and avoiding exclusionary language
Ø Understand and respond to the factors in the rhetorical situation that affect the composition and interpretation of correspondence

-Characterizing Correspondence
Correspondence includes all types of e-mail, memos, and letters. Accurate and clear correspondence is the everyday communication that moves workplace activities forward.
o Audience
Although notable exceptions exist, correspondence typically addresses one person or an identified group of people
o Composing and Revising
Knowing your audience is important in composing a presentation or document. Always reread correspondence before sending it
o Datedness
Because correspondence usually responds to a current situation, the information needs to be kept updated more frequently
o Conventions
Because correspondence is often prepared quickly, writers sometimes don’t pay enough attention to parts such as mechanics, grammar, and sequence. Inattention might make the audience think that your correspondence is inaccurate or details don’t matter to the writer
-Delivering Correspondence
Delivery for paper documents is usually sent by the USPS. Common electronic modes of delivers are faxes, instant messaging, and e-mails which are the most common.
-Composing E-mail Messages, Memos, and Letters
The following guidelines should help you compose effective correspondence:
o Include a descriptive subject line if appropriate
o Address your audience directly
o State objectives or ask questions initially; follow with explanatory material
o Organize material in descending order if you anticipate a neural or positive response
o Organize material in ascending order if you anticipate a negative response
o Enumerate or bullet items for clarity
o Be specific about the action that you want the reader to take
o End with a friendly comment


When composing e-mail, memos, and letters you should consider these factors:
o Attitude and tone
Use simple, direct language. Provide a you-attitude. Don’t use biased language.
o Organization of information
The content in all correspondence should be organized so that it can be read easily and quickly. You can effectively organize correspondence to fulfill disseminating information, making requests or inquiries, responding to requests or inquiries
o Format
You need to be familiar with formats and conventions for two reasons. First, many document originators use word processing to enter their own drafts. Second, when you sign a letter or initial a memo, you are acknowledging that it meets your standards of format as well as comment

Chapter 16 – Creating Process Explanations by Farwell and Wurm

Objectives and Outcomes:

1. Understand that the process explanations present an overview of sequential actions in chronological order

2. Use process explanations as part of larger documents, including manuals, orientation and training materials, marketing and promotional materials, and public information

3. Use a conventional sequence of technical description, process explanation, and benefits or advantages that an audience can use

4. Prepare effective process explanations by following these steps:
-Identify your audience and it’s reasons for needing the information
-List the steps of the action
-Choose visuals to illustrate the sequence: flowcharts, timelines, schedules, drawings showing each element in a process, time-lapse photographs, drawings with overlays of changes, drawings showing the final product, and sequential drawings
-Choose active or passive voice based on audience and purpose
-Understand and use the appropriate organization and format

Process explanations, also called process descriptions, provide background information about the sequential steps of any given action. However, they are not to be confused with directions. Process explanations provide an overview rather than focusing in on the details of the action. Process explanations define, describe, and sometimes illustrate the critical components of a action so the readers understand the basics before learning the actual process.

You can use the following to help your audience better understand your process explanations:

1. General analogies that everyone can understand and relate to
2. A statement of purpose
3. Relation of equipment to application

Here are some common places where process explanations can be found:
· Reports
o A technical description will provide the information about what a mechanism is where as the process explanation will explain how it works.

· Task Manuals
o The process explanation lays out the overall process before the manual goes into the step-by-step directions.

· Orientation and Training Manuals
· Marketing and Promotional Materials
· Public Information and Education

Preparing Process Explanations

1. Identify your audience and it’s reasons for needing the information
-You may not have to give such detailed information if you know your audience has a background in the topic.

2. List the steps of the action
-Define
-Describe
-Illustrate

3. Choose visuals to illustrate the sequence:
-Flowcharts, timelines, schedules, drawings showing each element in a process, time-lapse photographs, drawings with overlays of changes, drawings showing the final product, and sequential drawings

4. Choose active or passive voice based on audience and purpose

5. Understand and use the appropriate organization and format

Chapter 14

Definitions – Buckentine and Coughlin

This chapter describes our need for definitions, tells us where to use certain definitions and how to construct certain kinds of definitions.

The importance of using correct definitions is most evident in speeches and articles among other types of presentations. Some words have multiple meanings and some members of the audience might not be prepared to make that distinction.

The presenter needs to make it clear which meaning of the word he or she is using.

Complexity of meaning
Some meanings and definitions have different levels of complexity, it depends on the audience. Take this example from the book. One definition is from a normal dictionary – the kind used in school or at home – the other is from a technical dictionary:

Volt – standard unit of electromotive force; after Alessandro Volta, an Italian electrician.

Volt – the derived SI unit of electric potential defined as the difference in potential between a conducting wire carrying a constant current of one amp…

Symbols
Technical communication is not always written out or spoken. Symbols are used a lot in math, chemistry and physics like the ‘conservation of matter and energy equation’ (E=mc2). Mathematicians and chemists would have no problem identifying this symbol, but other people would not understand it. That’s where you add a definition.

Construction of definitions
Ask yourself questions about the word before you define it. Here are some examples:
What does it look like? What are its physical features? What is it similar to? How does it differ from other objects? What are distinguishing features? What does it do? How does it work? Who uses it?

Etymology is questions that are anticipated. For example: How did this object get its name? How old is this word? Where did this word come from? Every word comes from some origin and is presented in the linguistic origin. Etymological information is found in dictionaries or specialized reference books. When looking up a word in a dictionary you would find it in brackets usually before the definition. They are a useful part of a definition and benefit the audiences understanding of the meaning of the word.

History- Presenting historical background about the development and use of the term or subject puts its current meaning into perspective. The use of historical background anticipates questions like: What are the subject’s origins? How long have objects existed? How has the history affected modern development?

Examples- Using specific examples to illustrate the application of a term effectively expands a definition. Defining a concept with an example can be particularly effective.

Placement of Definition- Five choices for placing and incorporating definitions

Glossary- mini-dictionary usually located at the beginning or end of a technical document. Glossaries are very helpful when a person is unfamiliar with a word. When there is a glossary the words that are defined in the back of the book are marked in some way like bold, italics, or asterisks.

Information Notes and Sidebars- Readers that need extended information but put off to the side so that not everyone has to read the information.

Information notes- define a term or concept; they also enable writers to provide examples, cite related studies, and explain tangential concepts, present possible explanations. Usually found at the bottom of a page with a source or reference page.

Sidebars- provide more elaborated information than footnotes.

Appendixes- Lengthy documents intended for readers with widely varying backgrounds often have difficulty appealing to the entire range of readers. Technical experts can be bored or offended if the documents have too much elementary material. Readers already familiar with the material can glance at the reference to the appendix in the text and continue reading but those who need the review find it helpful.

Online Help-designed to provide users with information immediately in several different formats. Examples: an alphabetic index of all help topics available to users of this software. Also a list of frequently used topics that often saves time. An on screen box that provides hints and wizards. Finally it has a searchable database to answer questions.

There are two main components that make up a computer system, Hardware and software. Most visible is hardware which is a central processing unit and software which you can not see is in the computer. Most people don’t focus on the software as much as they should.
Backup storage: copies of data files, used as a safeguard against damage or loss.
Computer system: A computer plus software plus one or more pieces or peripheral equipment.
CPU-The part of a computer that performs calculations and processes date according to the instructions specified by the software.
Hardware- The computer itself.
Peripheral equipment- Input-output and date storage devices; printers, keyboards, CRTs, remote terminals, and tape and disk drives.
Software- The programs or instructions that tell the computer how to respond to specific user commands.

Chapter 15

Chapter 15
Jeff Feeder

Creating Technical Descriptions

Objectives and Outcomes
- Understand that technical descriptions can be used to organize specific details about objects, substances, mechanisms, organisms, systems, and locations for an identified audience.
- Physical characteristics, answering questions you expect your readers to have about appearance, acceptability, and impact.
- Use technical descriptions in observation notes, manuals and training materials, proposals and reports, marketing and promotional materials, and public information and education.
- Prepare technical descriptions:
- meet audience needs by answering their questions
- partition your subject into structural parts and/or functional parts
- Adjust diction to audience need, choosing accurate terms, and using appropriate metaphors
- Choose from a variety of visuals: photographs or realistic drawings, topographic and contour maps, phantom views, overlays, schematics and wiring diagrams, cross-section maps, exploded views, blueprints
- Typically use spatial order to give a clear view of appearance and structure

Defining Technical Description

Descriptions summarize physical characteristics, answering questions you expect your readers to have, examples are:
- What is it? How is it defined? By whom?
- What is its purpose? What is its importance or impact?
These questions get answered depending on the depth of the detail required. Sometimes technical description constitutes an entire document, oral presentation, or visual. Descriptions can very in length depending on the report written/given. Many descriptors show up in articles in smaller print near pictures or along the side of the article to explain something.

Using Technical Description

You can decide whether to include a description and what kind of details to incorporate by examining the context, purpose, and task of your document. Common applications for technical descriptions include:

Observation Notes – Many situations require accurate first-hand descriptions, particularly in medicine, field study, and scientific research. The notes may be extended or transcribed so others can read them or used for a formal document.

Training Materials – New employees may need descriptive overviews of the tools and machines they will use. Description can explain how it’s used, why it is used or what special features make it important.

Technical Manuals – A descriptor that introduces the reader to the machine, system or tool they may be using, giving visuals and descriptors of all parts and subparts.

Proposals and Reports – Descriptors should be used if it helps the audience understand and approve a proposal. Specifications on equipment or the capabilities may be necessary.

Marketing and Promotional Pieces – Materials or both informative and persuasive with positive terms within it. Specifications and detailed pictures are usually on a specification sheet with brief important information up front.

Public Information and Education – Magazines, newspapers or websites have substantial amount of description to let the reader know what its value is so to want to read it. Items that will catch the reader’s eye.

Preparing a Technical Description

Audience’s Task – Technical description should address the intended audience. Select information that responds to the audience’s probable questions. Identifying the audience helps decide on crucial aspects of the description as components, diction, visuals, and format.

Components – Separated into structural and functional parts. Structural parts comprise the physical aspects of the device, without regard to purpose such as a house key. Functional parts perform clearly defined tasks in the operation of the device, like a key may have multiple functional parts.

Diction – A form of technical description that is precise.
- Audience-appropriate Terms – An audience of non-experts need details but not extraordinary detail. Experts on the other hand need more precise detail on the information presented.
- Accurate Terms – To ensure precision use the most accurate terms available. An example is the differentiation between two and three dimensional objects. Mistakes in accuracy put the audience in total confusion.
- Figurative Language – Such as metaphors, similes, and analogies would give readers a clearer description. Comparing a small item to a larger item is an example of figurative language.

Visuals – Visuals enable the audience to form a mental image of the subject being described. Visuals should be labeled and described if needed. Visuals can go from 2D all the way to 3D, from lines to actual warped surfaces or 3 dimensional surfaces. Visual can be used to illustrate the exterior, the interior and individual components.
Organization – When preparing a technical description, you have to make decisions about the sequence of information. Organization could be spatial, chronological, or priority order.

Introductions of a descriptor should include:
- Background information such as what is the history? Or what are current developments?
- Parts-whole relationships like where does the object fir in relation to similar ones?
- Qualitative distinctions such as what separates it from similar objects?
Body of technical descriptor includes:
- Part-by-part description arranged in order of location, assembly or importance.
- Information is specific to the audience.
Conclusion of technical descriptor includes:
- Explains how the parts fit and function together.
- Applications: how is it used?
- Anecdotes or brief narratives: Who uses it?
- Advantages/disadvantages: What are the benefits and/or problems?

Chapter 13

Chapter 13
Designing Electronic Communication
Baden and Borth


Characterizing Electronic Communication:
Users and designers often have different perspectives about electronic communication. Users tend to think about tasks they want to accomplish, such as finding information, purchasing a product, or playing a game. Designers tend to think in terms of design and functionality. Both the user and designer see electronic communication as...

Interactive and nonlinear- Electronic communication environments are established by multiple possibilities for interactions among users, computers, software, interface components and developers.

Virtual and open- Virtual spaces do not have a material, face-to-face reality. Open means two things, both related to consistency and user expectations: (1) spaces allow users to move beyond boundaries at will. (2) Standards and conventions are fluid, leading varied designs and functionality and often uneven experiences for users.

Complex and dynamic- Complex development efforts include managing both static and dynamic content, hundreds of individual text and graphic files, multimedia components, and databases. Technology changes rapidly, becoming more dynamic and multidimensional; designers must plan for differences in users’ available technology.

Audiences and Electronic Communication-
Meeting the needs of audiences should be a primary goal of writers and designers of electronic communication. Electronic environments offer audiences unique opportunities to co-construct the environment and information each time they enter it. The sequence of links that users select leads to individual interpretations of information.

Reading and Navigating Electronic Communication:
Reading in electronic communication environments is different from reading on paper because it involves interface; it is interactive and brings with it a number of complications.

Screen and page size-
How much text can a reader see at one time? Larger screens enable the reader to see more, however, a reader has complications even with large screens because reading on a computer monitor reduces their awareness of where they are in relation to the whole document.

Legibility-
How easy is it to read what’s on the screen? Factors such as spacing, background and text color affect legibility. Readers also have difficulty with visual cues such as boldface and italics may not show on the screen and spacing is sometimes difficult to judge.

Responsiveness-
How quickly should a system respond to users’ actions? If the response time is more than ten seconds, people usually lose attention and wander to other tasks.

Navigation-
How easily can readers navigate the Web site? How easily can readers move through and locate places in the text? Web readers and users are influenced by images and icons that affect their ability to navigate on the Web, by color, links and backgrounds, typography and layout.

Equipment and service-
How much are readers constrained by physical realities? Even though fast modems and higher bandwidths are available, the modems and lines used by most people are too slow for decent Web response times.

Principles and Practices of Effective Design:
Information architecture- Is the framework that structures content. The structure should meet the goals and expectations of the user. Structure can be sequential (Web pages that link to the next in a linear style), hierarchical (outline format), or interlinked (less structured, liberally linked).

Page/screen design- Is the look and feel of the information the space on the screen. Organization and context help users understand the information.
Identification- Include critical information and site identification at or near the top of each page.
White Space- Don’t fill every pixel of your page. White space is important to help guide the user’s eye around the page. Leaving space is often preferable to creating divisions with graphics or color bars that detract from your content.
Scrolling- Prevent horizontal scrolling.

Content- Is organized and written differently for electronic communication that for traditional print documents. The style of content should match users’ ways of finding and reading information using electronic devices.

Graphics:
-Enhance the design and usability of the information
-Help establish identities for Web sites and create excitement and interest
-Help users navigate by calling attention to links, sections of sites, special features and different areas of pages.
-Provide information to illustrate products to consumers or as integral parts of Web-based articles, reports, or other documents

JPG image (“j-peg”) - named for the Joint Photographic Experts Group that created the type. Works well for photographic images, images with a high number of colors (above 265) and images with graduated color.

GIF image (“gif” or “jif”) - short for Graphics Interchange Format developed by CompuServe. Works well for images with ‘flat’ color areas, transparent images and for small images such as icons. Gifs manage up to 256 colors.

PNG image (“ping”) – for Portable Network Graphics. A new graphics type that promises to offer qualities of both .jpgs and .gifs with smaller file sizes. Older browsers do not support this image type and some graphic production software packages do not include the capability of saving images in the .png format.

Web sites follow several useful rules of thumb:
-Balance graphics and text on a page
-Coordinate graphics throughout a site
-Keep size of image files as small as possible to reduce load time
-Notify users when you must include a slow-loading graphic
-Use larger images on lower-level pages -Don’t rely on images alone to convey informati

Chapter 12

Chapter 12

William Wegner

Jen Real

Objectives:

• Understand that visuals not only attract attention and create appeal but also benefit cognitive processing and learning

• Adapt visuals by varying the complexity of content, presentation, color and size to different audiences and different situation

• Make effective decisions about textual references and labeling and placement of visuals

• Carefully design of select visuals to fulfill specific functions:
  
  • provide immediate visual recognition
  • organize numeric or verbal data
  • show relationships among numeric or verbal data
  • Define or explain concepts, objects, and processes
  • Present chronology, sequence, or processes
  • Illustrate appearance of structure
  • Identify facilities or locations

• Use color appropriately and productively

• Visuals can be more specific than words
  • Words may be too general, and not express the exact thing you are trying to represent.
• Well-designed visuals can usually be understood more easily than text
  • Graphs can sometimes make numical data easier to translate.
• Visuals can be processed more quickly than text
  • Can take less time to process data in graph than text
• Visuals help readers learn.
  • Readers can be able to hold information longer from visuals rather than text.

Incorporating Visuals

• Visuals/Verbal Combinations .
  • The combination of visuals and text can complement each other.
• Well-designed visual situations:
  • Limited technical oriented audiences.
  • Speed of presentation.
  • Could be more clearly illustrated.

Adapting Visuals to Audiences

• Visuals need to be adapted to the correct audience and experience of the audience.

Conventions in Referencing and Placing Visuals

• Textual Reference.
  • Visuals should be refered by text.
• Labeling.
  • Explain what the visuals is and what parts are included in the visuals.
• Placement.
• Visuals should be close the text that is describing the visual.

Visual Functions

Function 1: Provide Immediate Visual Recognition

• Common sybols are sometimes more vonvenient and can be standard for any audiences.
• Examples.
• Bathroom signs
• Traffic signs
• Critical safety signs

Function 2: Organize Numeric or Textual Data

• Numerical tables with rows and columns allow for eaily sortable data.
• Text can also be presented in tables for easy explanations.

Function 3: Show Relationships

• Spatials relationships can show a small section of a larger visual for more definition.
• Quantitative relationships effectively show comparisons between data sets. (Line, Scatter, Pie, and Bar Graphs)
• Floating graph conventions are good ways to show more details of a general data set.

Function 4: Define Concepts, Objects, and Processes

• The use of visuals can show a process or a transformation.

Function 5: Present Action or Process

• Actions can be shown using visuals in a sequence.
• Charts can be used to show flow and sequence.

Function 6: illustrate appearance, structure, or function

• Physical characteristics are easier to present visually
• Diagrams and drawings are two of the more effective ways to show of parts of an item

• Diagrams illustrate the complex physical and structures of objects, mechanisms, and organisms.
• Drawings depict the actual appearance of an object, or organism.

Function 7: Identifying Facilities or Locations

• Identifying facilities and locations traditionally has meant maps and photographs.

• Maps also refer to a navigational tool used on the web, and workplace.
• Photographs are often made with digital cameras as well as traditional camera

• Maps – graphic information displayed on maps (called charts not maps for air or water). Maps are not only navigational tools but may also show topographical, demographic, agricultural, meteorological, and geological data.
• Photographs – are best used when you actually want to display the object it’s self. Appropriate when you want to emphasize the realism, particularly the natural features of a setting.

Conventions in Use of Color

Cautions against misuse of color

• Overuse of decorative color –eliminates functionality
• Too much color – distracts or annoys the readers
• Cultural insensitivity – violating cultural expectations can mean the use of color contradictions in either the workplace culture or the broader social culture.

Suggestions for Appropriate use of color

When color is used in technical documents it should be an integral part of the information that readers need.

• A few of the most important purposes

• Signal safety – use of colors to make a statement of safety (ex. Green=go, yellow=caution, red= stop).
• Attract attention – draw readers to the topic.
• Enable accurate identification – helps readers focus on critical features of the object.
• Show structure or organization – enable readers to better understand the structure displayed.
• Highlight components and their process or movement – show the readers a path for moving components.
• Aid comprehension – make and image easier to understand by adding colors where colors where not present before.
• Influence interpretation – enhance the ability for readers to understand and interpret visuals in a presentation.

Color in Designing Electronic Documents

• Consider the following when designing electronic documents

• Will the document be viewed on a screen with different resolution then the one you’re using?
• What will the lighting in the room be like? Brighter or darker then the room your currently in?
• Will the document be printed? If so test what the colors look like on paper as there is a big difference between the colors on the computer screen and on paper. And if the document will be printed in black and white instead of color how will the color images look when not in color.

Chapter 11

Designing Information

By Brandis Miller & Cheng Vue

Designing Information

All jobs require some sort of information design, whether electronic, print, or sometimes both. Knowledge is the key to setting you apart from those who have little understanding of information design. Information design deals with how you organize and present information to increase audience comprehension. Information design deals with five categories of elements:

1. Textual elements (letters, numbers, symbols, etc.)

2. Spatial elements (spaces between elements, size & placement of text & graphics, etc.)

3. Graphic elements (punctuation marks, bullets & icons, lines & arrows, tables, graphs, photos, etc.)

4. Color & textual elements (color, saturation, value, brightness, texture, etc.)

5. Dynamic elements (layout, placement of images, and in an electronic document, animation)

Chunking & Labeling Information

Chunking and labeling information involves two factors: logical topical relationships & audience need for the information. Interesting examples of these are given in three sets: undifferentiated text, chunked text, and labeled text. Undifferentiated text gives, in no particular order, information on several topics. Chunked text groups information into various subtopics and separates each one into a different paragraph. Labeled text has bold text in the headings and many are bulleted. Examples of all three are given in Figure 11.1 on page 383.

White space is the part of any page or screen that is blank, without print or visuals. Many times, white space makes the document or page more appealing. It can be used for margins, lines between paragraphs, or space around visuals. Many examples are listed in our text on how to better utilize the white space in our technical documents. Some key examples are margins, text alignment, and leading & line length. The four margins in a paper can be use for chucking. Margins can be wide allowing room for note-taking or narrow to store more information.

Justified alignment gives a neater, more professional look to many documents but can make text harder to read. Unjustified alignment is when all the lines begin at the same left (right) margin and the right (left) margin is ragged. This generally is easier for a reader to read. Many times this depends on the type of document being prepared.

Leading and line length can improve accessibility and legibility while increasing ease and speed of reading. Larger leading length with short lines is frequently found to be easier to read. Examples are given in Figures 11.3 and 11.4 on page 385.

Using headings to label chunked information can be used to label and identify the information about to be given. Headings give the reader a mental and literal break. They also establish a subject for the next section in the document. Headings can be tricky, however. Readers need to be helped, not confused, by headings and subheadings.

Arranging Related Chunks of Verbal and Visual Information

Selecting appropriate grids and careful placement of visuals near related text are two key factors to designing and effective document. When selecting a grid, it is important to keep in mind the type of document you are producing.

• Typically, one column grids are used for correspondence & reports, two column grids are used for manuals & brochures, and three column grids are used for newsletters.
  
• When dealing with the placement of visuals, it is important to keep in mind that readers do not want to have to turn pages back and forth. A study by NASA found that many readers prefer visuals located within the text rather than in an appendix at the end of the document.

Chart junk, tombstoning, heading placement, and windows & orphans are problems to avoid when arranging information.

• Chart junk is miscellaneous graphic “junk” that does nothing to help people understand the information they are reading. Many documents to not need any fancy extras.
• Tombstoning involves aligning headings so that the readers mistakenly chunk the text when they look at the page.
  
• Heading placement comes from leaving too few lines after a heading or subheading at the top or bottom of a column or page.
• Windows are left over words (one or two) hanging awkwardly at the last line of a paragraph. Orphans are left over words hanging awkwardly at the beginning of a page break. Examples of all are given in Figures 11.10-11.13 on pages 392 and 393.

Emphasizing Information

Emphasizing portions of text makes information more accessible, comprehensible, and useful. Typeface (font) affects readers’ attitudes and reactions to a print or electronic document as well as their ability to access, comprehend, and use the information easily and quickly. Some basic characteristics include serif or sans serif. Serifs are tiny fine lines usually at the tops or bottoms of letters (i.e. in the letters “R” and “X” as opposed to “R” and “X”). Making the wrong choice about typeface variations can also make it difficult for the reader to read and understand any given document. Too small of a font can be hard to read whereas too large of a font can seem elementary to readers. Keeping in mind many businesses prefer 10-12 point font can be helpful. Of course headings, power points, etc. will need to be larger. Style choices can also be helpful or harmful. CAPITALIZATION, boldface, italics, etc. can be used alone or combined to create emphasis. Make sure, however, your choice of style compliments your document and is appropriately used.

Typographic devises can also be used to create emphasis. Numbered lists, bulleted lists, shading, and color are all great examples. Numbered lists are popular with instructions when the order of the given information is important. Bulleted lists are used when each item listed is equally important. Shading works well to highlight and emphasize information. Although often restricted by cost, color is said to be the most effective way to set important information apart from the rest of your text. It helps to identify a text hierarchy, chunk information, and emphasize key points. If well designed, other visual devices can be as effective as color.

Chapter 10 – Organizing Information

Paulina Manzo & Scott Bertrand

Developing the Organization for Information

· Outlines

o Tools to help you manage the material for a document

o Help you arrange and examine and then rearrange collected information

o Sequence must be logical

o Also serve as a table of contents

· Storyboards

o Another way to organize information – two purposes and audiences

1. A powerful organization tool for writers and designers who create them

2. A short dramatic visual summary showing the gist of the final project for clients or customers.

o Passive Storyboard – the writer or designer usually walks a client through the sequence

o Active/interactive Storyboard – requires the user to be engaged in the process; ex: PowerPoint’s.

o Animatics Storyboard – drafts of animated presentations that are “produced by photographing storyboard sketches on a film strip or video with audio”

o Benefits – saves time and money, reduces changes later in the process, people involved in the project can review and revise the storyboard, and a way to explore alternative ideas.

· Tables and Spreadsheets

o Enable you to classify information into comparable groups and then identify categories of details about each group

· Implementing the Organization of Information

o Print Documents – chunk information into paragraphs that readers can see

o Electronic Documents – chunk information as well, they have additional benefit of hyperlinks

o Oral Presentations – the audience has to listen for cues about shifts to another topic, so changes in vocal pacing, pitch, and inflection take the place of indentation and line spacing.

o Technical Visuals – labels and cues direct movement through the visual

· Organization Basics

o Alphabetical order, numeric order, and continuums

o Topic sentence and transitions to signal organizations

§ Topic sentence – indentifies both the content and organization of a paragraph so the audience anticipates what forthcoming information is about and how it will be sequenced.

§ Transitions – words, phrases and sentences that act as the glue to connecting ideas and sentences within a single paragraph.

o Whole/Parts Organization

§ Presents readers with a relationship between the whole (whether an idea, object, or entire system) and parts of that whole (whether on a micro level or macro level)

§ Involves separating a single item into individual components and related types of an item.

o Chronological order

§ Presents readers with material arranged by sequence or order of occurrence.

o Spatial Order

§ Arrangement by relative physical location

§ Describes the physical parts of nearly anything, from cellular structures to the orbital path of a satellite.

o Ascending/Descending Order

§ Ascending order – least-to-most important

§ Descending order – most-to-least important

o Comparison/Contrast

§ Tells readers about similarities and differences

· Comparisons identifies the similarities of various ideas, objects, or situations

· Contrast is the differences

o Cause and Effect

§ Focuses on precipitating factors and results

§ You can move from cause to effect or from effect to cause

· Inductive reasoning – moves from specific instances to broad generalizations

· Deductive reasoning – moving general premises to specific causes